1. What is the difference between systolic and diastolic blood pressure? How are they measured and what are the normal ranges for adults? - Systolic blood pressure is the pressure exerted by the blood on the arterial walls during ventricular contraction, while diastolic blood pressure is the pressure exerted by the blood on the arterial walls during ventricular relaxation. They are measured using a sphygmomanometer and a stethoscope, and the normal ranges for adults are 120/80 mmHg (systolic/diastolic). 2. What are the main functions of the kidneys? What are the consequences of kidney failure and how can it be treated? - The main functions of the kidneys are to filter the blood, regulate fluid and electrolyte balance, maintain acid-base balance, secrete hormones (such as erythropoietin and renin), and excrete waste products (such as urea and creatinine). Kidney failure can result in fluid overload, electrolyte imbalances, acidosis, anemia, hypertension, and uremia. It can be treated by dialysis or kidney transplantation. 3. What are the three types of muscle tissue? What are their characteristics and locations in the body? - The three types of muscle tissue are skeletal, cardiac, and smooth. Skeletal muscle is composed of striated fibers that are attached to bones and can be voluntarily controlled. Cardiac muscle is composed of branched fibers that form the walls of the heart and can contract rhythmically. Smooth muscle is composed of spindle-shaped cells that line the walls of hollow organs (such as blood vessels, digestive tract, urinary bladder, etc.) and can be involuntarily controlled 4. What are the components of the respiratory system? What are the processes involved in respiration and gas exchange? - The components of the respiratory system are the nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli, and lungs. The processes involved in respiration and gas exchange are ventilation (the movement of air in and out of the lungs), external respiration (the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the alveoli and the pulmonary capillaries), internal respiration (the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the systemic capillaries and the tissues), and cellular respiration (the use of oxygen and production of carbon dioxide by the cells). 5. What are the major endocrine glands in the body? What hormones do they secrete and what are their effects? - The major endocrine glands in the body are the pituitary gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid glands, adrenal glands, pancreas, ovaries, testes, pineal gland, and thymus gland. The hormones they secrete and their effects are: - Pituitary gland: growth hormone (stimulates growth and metabolism), prolactin (stimulates milk production), thyroidstimulating hormone (stimulates thyroid hormone secretion), adrenocorticotropic hormone (stimulates cortisol secretion), follicle-stimulating hormone (stimulates gamete production), luteinizing hormone (stimulates sex hormone secretion), antidiuretic hormone (increases water reabsorption), and oxytocin (stimulates uterine contractions and milk ejection). - Thyroid gland: thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3) (increase metabolic rate and oxygen consumption), calcitonin (decreases blood calcium levels). - Parathyroid glands: parathyroid hormone (increases blood calcium levels). - Adrenal glands: aldosterone (increases sodium reabsorption and potassium excretion), cortisol (increases blood glucose levels and suppresses inflammation), epinephrine and norepinephrine (increase heart rate, blood pressure, and blood glucose levels). - Pancreas: insulin (decreases blood glucose levels) and glucagon (increases blood glucose levels). - Ovaries: estrogen (promotes female secondary sex characteristics and regulates menstrual cycle) and progesterone (prepares uterus for pregnancy).