1. What was the main cause of the Protestant Reformation in Europe in the 16th century? How did it affect the political and religious landscape of the continent? - The main cause of the Protestant Reformation was the dissatisfaction of some Christians with the corruption and abuses of the Catholic Church, especially the selling of indulgences, which were supposed to reduce the punishment for sins. The Reformation led to the emergence of various Protestant denominations, such as Lutherans, Calvinists, Anglicans, and Anabaptists, that challenged the authority and doctrines of the Catholic Church. It also sparked wars and conflicts between Catholic and Protestant states, such as the Thirty Years' War (1618-1648), and contributed to the rise of nationalism and secularism in Europe. 2. What were the main factors that enabled European exploration and expansion in the 15th and 16th centuries? What were some of the consequences of this process for the indigenous peoples of Africa, Asia, and America? - The main factors that enabled European exploration and expansion were the development of new technologies, such as the compass, the astrolabe, the caravel, and the cannon; the desire for trade, wealth, and prestige; and the spread of Christianity. Some of the consequences of this process for the indigenous peoples of Africa, Asia, and America were the exploitation of their resources and labor; the introduction of diseases, such as smallpox, that decimated their populations; the disruption of their cultures and societies; and the imposition of colonial rule and slavery. 3. What were the main characteristics of absolutism as a form of government in Europe in the 17th and 18th centuries? Give examples of two absolute monarchs and explain how they exercised their power. - Absolutism was a form of government in which a monarch claimed to have absolute authority over all aspects of society, based on the divine right of kings. Some characteristics of absolutism were centralization of power, control over nobility, bureaucracy, taxation, standing army, censorship, and propaganda. Two examples of absolute monarchs were Louis XIV of France (1638-1715) and Peter I of Russia (1672-1725). Louis XIV consolidated his power by building a lavish palace at Versailles, where he kept his nobles under his watch; expanding his territory through wars; promoting French culture and art; and persecuting religious minorities, such as Huguenots. Peter I modernized Russia by adopting Western technology, education, and customs; expanding his empire through conquests; building a new capital at St. Petersburg; and reforming the administration, military, and church. 1. What is the name of the ancient civilization that flourished in the Indus Valley from 2800 BC to 1800 BC, and is known for its urban planning, sanitation, and writing system? - The Harappan civilization or the Indus Valley civilization