1. What is the difference between primary and secondary hemostasis? How

are they regulated by the coagulation cascade?

- Primary hemostasis is the formation of a platelet plug at the site of vascular

injury, while secondary hemostasis is the stabilization of the plug by fibrin

strands. They are regulated by the coagulation cascade, which consists of

two pathways: the intrinsic and the extrinsic. The intrinsic pathway is

activated by contact with damaged endothelium or collagen, while the

extrinsic pathway is activated by tissue factor released from injured cells.

Both pathways converge at the activation of factor X, which converts

prothrombin to thrombin. Thrombin then converts fibrinogen to fibrin, which

forms a mesh around the platelet plug.

2. What are the main types of shock and their pathophysiological

mechanisms?

- The main types of shock are hypovolemic, cardiogenic, obstructive, and

distributive. Hypovolemic shock occurs when there is a loss of blood or fluid

volume, leading to decreased venous return, cardiac output, and tissue

perfusion. Cardiogenic shock occurs when there is a failure of the heart to

pump effectively, leading to reduced cardiac output and tissue perfusion.

Obstructive shock occurs when there is an obstruction of blood flow in the

circulatory system, such as a pulmonary embolism, cardiac tamponade, or

tension pneumothorax, leading to reduced cardiac output and tissue

perfusion. Distributive shock occurs when there is a widespread vasodilation

and increased capillary permeability, leading to reduced vascular resistance,

blood pressure, and tissue perfusion. Examples of distributive shock are

septic shock, anaphylactic shock, and neurogenic shock.

3. What are the main causes and consequences of acute respiratory distress

syndrome (ARDS)?

- The main causes of ARDS are direct or indirect lung injury that triggers an

inflammatory response in the alveoli. Direct lung injury can be caused by

pneumonia, aspiration, inhalation injury, or chest trauma. Indirect lung

injury can be caused by sepsis, pancreatitis, transfusion reaction, or drug

overdose. The consequences of ARDS are impaired gas exchange, hypoxemia,

hypercapnia, respiratory acidosis, pulmonary edema, decreased lung

compliance, increased airway resistance, and respiratory failure.

4. What are the main types of diabetes mellitus and their pathophysiological

mechanisms?

- The main types of diabetes mellitus are type 1, type 2, and gestational

diabetes. Type 1 diabetes mellitus is caused by autoimmune destruction of

pancreatic beta cells that produce insulin, leading to absolute insulin

deficiency and hyperglycemia. Type 2 diabetes mellitus is caused by insulin

resistance and relative insulin deficiency, leading to impaired glucose uptake

and hyperglycemia. Gestational diabetes mellitus is caused by hormonal

changes during pregnancy that increase insulin resistance and glucose