1. What are the indications and contraindications for non-invasive ventilation (NIV) in acute respiratory failure? Provide at least three examples for each. - Indications: acute exacerbation of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), acute cardiogenic pulmonary edema, acute hypoxemic respiratory failure (e.g., pneumonia, acute respiratory distress syndrome), immunocompromised patients, postextubation respiratory failure, palliative care. - Contraindications: respiratory arrest, hemodynamic instability, inability to protect airway, excessive secretions, facial trauma or surgery, severe encephalopathy, upper gastrointestinal bleeding, non-compliance or intolerance. 2. What are the main components of the Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) and how are they scored? What is the minimum and maximum score possible? - The main components of the GCS are eye opening, verbal response and motor response. They are scored as follows: - Eye opening: 4 - spontaneous, 3 - to voice, 2 - to pain, 1 - none. - Verbal response: 5 - oriented, 4 - confused, 3 - inappropriate words, 2 - incomprehensible sounds, 1 - none. - Motor response: 6 - obeys commands, 5 - localizes pain, 4 - withdraws from pain, 3 - flexion to pain, 2 - extension to pain, 1 - none. - The minimum score possible is 3 (no response to any stimulus) and the maximum score possible is 15 (normal consciousness). 3. What are the common causes and complications of acute kidney injury (AKI) in critically ill patients? Provide at least two examples for each. - Common causes: sepsis, hypovolemia, nephrotoxic drugs, contrast-induced nephropathy, rhabdomyolysis, obstruction. - Common complications: fluid overload, electrolyte imbalance, acidosis, uremia, increased risk of infection, increased mortality. 4. What are the indications and complications of central venous catheterization (CVC) in critically ill patients? Provide at least two examples for each. - Indications: hemodynamic monitoring (central venous pressure, mixed venous oxygen saturation), fluid resuscitation, administration of vasoactive drugs or parenteral nutrition, hemodialysis or plasmapheresis, difficult peripheral venous access. - Complications: mechanical (pneumothorax, hemothorax, arterial puncture, malposition), infectious (catheter-related bloodstream infection), thrombotic (venous thrombosis o r embolism). 5. What are the principles and goals of sedation and analgesia in critically ill patients? Provide at least two examples for each. - Principles: use the lowest effective dose of sedative and analgesic agents, titrate to the desired level of sedation and analgesia using validated scales (e.g., Richmond Agitation-Sedation Scale, Numeric Rating Scale), monitor for adverse effects (e.g., hypotension, respiratory depression), regularly assess the need for sedation and analgesia and adjust accordingly. - Goals: provide comfort and relief of pain and anxiety, facilitate mechanical ventilation and other procedures, prevent agitation and delirium, reduce oxygen consumption and stress response. 6. What are the indications and techniques of endotracheal intubation in critically ill patients? Provide at least two examples for each. - Indications: airway protection or obstruction (e.g., coma, aspiration risk), respiratory failure (e.g., hypoxemia, hypercapnia), need for mechanical ventilation or invasive procedures (e.g., bronchoscopy). - Techniques: rapid sequence intubation (RSI) with preoxygenation, induction agent and neuromuscular blocker; awake intubation with topical anesthesia and sedation; video laryngoscopy or fiberoptic bronchoscopy; confirmation of tube placement with capnography and chest radiograph. 7. What are the modes and settings of mechanical ventilation in critically ill patients? Provide at least two examples for each. - Modes: volume-controlled ventilation (VCV) with preset tidal volume and flow rate; pressure-controlled ventilation (PCV) with preset inspiratory pressure and time; pressure support ventilation (PSV) with preset inspiratory pressure and patient-triggered breaths; synchronized intermittent mandatory ventilation (SIMV) with preset mandatory breaths and patient-triggered breaths; continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) with preset positive end-expiratory pressure (PEEP) and spontaneous breaths. - Settings: tidal volume (6-8 ml/kg ideal body