1. What is the difference between descriptive and inferential statistics? Give an example of each in the context of nursing administration. - Descriptive statistics summarize and display the characteristics of a data set, such as mean, median, mode, standard deviation, frequency, etc. Inferential statistics test hypotheses and draw conclusions about a population based on a sample, such as confidence intervals, t-tests, ANOVA, regression, etc. For example, descriptive statistics can be used to report the average age, gender distribution, and satisfaction level of the patients in a hospital ward. Inferential statistics can be used to compare the effectiveness of different interventions or treatments on patient outcomes across different wards or hospitals. 2. What are the four levels of measurement for quantitative data? Explain each level and give an example of a variable that can be measured at each level in the context of nursing administration. - The four levels of measurement for quantitative data are nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio. Nominal data are categorical data that have no inherent order or rank, such as gender, blood type, or diagnosis. Ordinal data are categorical data that have a meaningful order or rank, but no equal intervals between the categories, such as pain scale, education level, or priority level. Interval data are numerical data that have equal intervals between the values, but no absolute zero point, such as temperature, IQ score, or date. Ratio data are numerical data that have equal intervals between the values and an absolute zero point, such as height, weight, or dosage. 3. What is the difference between reliability and validity in quantitative research? How can they be assessed and improved in the context of nursing administration? - Reliability refers to the consistency and stability of a measurement instrument or a research method. Validity refers to the accuracy and credibility of a measurement instrument or a research method. Reliability can be assessed by using methods such as test-retest, inter-rater, or internal consistency. Validity can be assessed by using methods such as face validity, content validity, criterion validity, or construct validity. Reliability and validity can be improved by using clear and operational definitions of variables, using standardized and appropriate instruments and procedures, using representative and adequate samples, controlling for confounding factors and sources of bias, and conducting pilot tests and peer reviews. 4. What are the three types of research designs for quantitative research? Explain each type and give an example of a research question that can be answered by each type in the context of nursing administration. - The three types of research designs for quantitative research are experimental, quasi-experimental, and non-experimental. Experimental designs involve manipulating one or more independent variables and measuring their effects on one or more dependent variables while controlling for extraneous variables. For example, an experimental design can be used to answer the question: What is the effect of implementing a new protocol for hand hygiene on the incidence of hospital-acquired infections? Quasi-experimental desig