1. What is the difference between universal health coverage and single-payer health system? Provide an example of a country that has implemented each system. - Universal health coverage (UHC) means that all people have access to the health services they need, without facing financial hardship. UHC does not necessarily imply that the government is the sole payer or provider of health care, but rather that it ensures a minimum level of coverage for everyone. Singlepayer health system is a specific way of achieving UHC, in which the government collects taxes and pays for all health care services, eliminating the role of private insurers. An example of a country that has implemented UHC is France, which has a mix of public and private financing and delivery. An example of a country that has implemented a single-payer health system is Canada, which has a publicly funded and administered health insurance scheme. - Rationale: This question tests the students' understanding of the basic concepts and definitions of different health care systems, as well as their ability to compare and contrast them using real-world examples. 2. What are some of the main challenges and opportunities for improving health care quality and safety in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs)? Give at least three examples of each. - Some of the main challenges for improving health care quality and safety in LMICs are: lack of resources, such as human, financial, material, and technological; weak governance and regulation, such as lack of standards, accreditation, monitoring, and evaluation; low awareness and demand for quality and safety among patients and providers; cultural and contextual barriers, such as language, literacy, beliefs, and preferences; and complex and fragmented health systems, such as multiple actors, levels, and sectors. Some of the main opportunities for improving health care quality and safety in LMICs are: increasing political commitment and leadership for quality and safety; leveraging existing platforms and networks, such as primary health care, community health workers, and civil society organizations; harnessing innovation and digital technology, such as mobile phones, telemedicine, and artificial intelligence; engaging patients and providers in co-designing and co-implementing quality improvement interventions; and learning from best practices and evidence from other countries and contexts. - Rationale: This question tests the students' ability to identify and analyze the key factors that influence health care quality and safety in LMICs, as well as their ability to propose feasible and context-specific solutions. 3. What are some of the ethical principles that guide health care policy making? Explain how they can be applied in a case scenario of your choice. - Some of the ethical principles that guide health care policy making are: beneficence, which means doing good or promoting well-being; non-maleficence, which means avoiding harm or minimizing risks; autonomy, which means respecting people's choices and preferences; justice, which means ensuring fairness and equity; solidarity, which means fostering cooperation and mutual support; and accountability, which means being transparent and responsible. These principles can be applied in