1. What are the main components of the ABCDE bundle and how do they improve patient outcomes in the ICU? (5 marks) Answer: The ABCDE bundle consists of Awakening and Breathing Coordination, Delirium monitoring and management, and Early mobility and exercise. These interventions aim to reduce the duration of mechanical ventilation, prevent complications such as ventilator-associated pneumonia and ICU-acquired weakness, and improve cognitive and functional recovery. 2. What are the indications and contraindications for initiating non-invasive ventilation (NIV) in acute respiratory failure? (5 marks) Answer: NIV is indicated for patients with acute respiratory failure due to exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), cardiogenic pulmonary edema, or immunocompromised states. NIV is contraindicated for patients with hemodynamic instability, impaired mental status, excessive secretions, facial trauma or surgery, or high risk of aspiration. 3. What are the common causes and clinical features of acute kidney injury (AKI) in critically ill patients? (5 marks) Answer: AKI is a sudden decline in kidney function that can be classified into prerenal, intrinsic, or postrenal causes. Prerenal AKI is due to decreased renal perfusion from hypovolemia, sepsis, or heart failure. Intrinsic AKI is due to damage to the renal parenchyma from ischemia, nephrotoxins, or inflammation. Postrenal AKI is due to obstruction of the urinary tract from stones, tumors, or clots. Clinical features of AKI include oliguria or anuria, fluid overload, electrolyte imbalances, acidosis, and uremia. 4. What are the principles and goals of palliative care in the ICU setting? (5 marks) Answer: Palliative care is an interdisciplinary approach that aims to relieve suffering and improve quality of life for patients with life-limiting illnesses and their families. The goals of palliative care in the ICU setting are to provide symptom management, facilitate