1. What is the most common cause of acute kidney injury (AKI) in hospitalized patients? How does AKI affect the fluid and electrolyte balance in the body? - The most common cause of AKI is prerenal failure, which occurs when there is a decrease in blood flow to the kidneys due to hypovolemia, hypotension, heart failure, or sepsis. AKI can lead to fluid overload, edema, hypertension, and pulmonary congestion. It can also cause electrolyte imbalances such as hyperkalemia, hyponatremia, hypocalcemia, and metabolic acidosis. 2. What are the signs and symptoms of diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA)? What are the goals of treatment for DKA? - DKA is a life-threatening complication of diabetes mellitus that occurs when the body cannot use glucose as a fuel source and breaks down fat instead, producing ketones. The signs and symptoms of DKA include polyuria, polydipsia, polyphagia, nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, fruity breath odor, Kussmaul respirations, tachycardia, hypotension, and altered mental status. The goals of treatment for DKA are to correct dehydration, electrolyte imbalances, acidosis, and hyperglycemia with fluid replacement, insulin therapy, and bicarbonate administration if needed. 3. What are the risk factors for developing pressure ulcers? How can pressure ulcers be prevented and treated? - Pressure ulcers are localized injuries to the skin and underlying tissue caused by prolonged pressure or shear forces. The risk factors for developing pressure ulcers include immobility, malnutrition, dehydration, incontinence, impaired sensation, infection, and aging. Pressure ulcers can be prevented by performing regular skin assessments, repositioning patients every two hours or more frequently if needed, using pressure-relieving devices such as mattresses and cushions, maintaining adequate nutrition and hydration, keeping the skin clean and dry, and applying moisturizers and barrier creams as needed. Pressure ulcers can be treated by removing necrotic tissue (debridement), applying topical dressings or negative pressure wound therapy (NPWT), administering antibiotics if infected, and promoting wound healing with adequate nutrition and blood supply. 4. What are the types and causes of anemia? How does anemia affect the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood? - Anemia is a condition in which the number of red blood cells (RBCs) or the amount of hemoglobin in the blood is below normal. There are three main types of anemia: blood loss anemia, hemolytic anemia, and aplastic anemia. Blood loss anemia occurs when there is acute or chronic bleeding from trauma, surgery, ulcers, or menstruation. Hemolytic anemia occurs when RBCs are destroyed prematurely by autoimmune disorders, infections, drugs, or inherited defects. Aplastic anemia occurs when the bone marrow fails to produce enough RBCs due to radiation, chemotherapy, toxins, or idiopathic causes. Anemia reduces the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood by decreasing the number of RBCs or hemoglobin molecules available to