Directions: This is an open-book and open-notes exam. You have 2 hours to complete the exam. The test is worth 100 points; each item is worth 10 points. 1. Define and describe the six steps of the scientific method. Give an example of each step. Answer: Identify a problem- to investigate or a problem that can be resolved by making observations. For example, placing candies closer to a participant increases the number of candies they eat (Pivitera, 2017). Develop a research plan by testing the hypothesis. Define a variable that can change or vary by observation and how it can be measured. For example, number of candies eaten when placed within arm’s reach compared to candies eaten when placed 10 feet away. Conduct the study by executing the plan in step 2. For example, recording and observe how many pieces of candy a person eats when at arm’s length then again 10 feet away. Analyze and evaluate the data. Report the numbers observed when the study was conducted and present them in charts, graphs and tables and determine the difference. Communicate the results by sharing the results of the study. Results can be shared orally or through posters. Generate more new ideas by publishing your work so others can review your findings and conduct further studies. Explain if your hypothesis was supported or not. If the hypothesis was not supported test another hypothesis (Pivitera, 2017). 2. When is it appropriate for a researcher to use deception in a study? When is it not appropriate? How can the negative effects of deception be minimized? Deception maybe necessary if use of non-deceptive alternatives is not feasible and may be used if there is no reasonable expectation for causing physical pain or sever emotional distress to the participant as a result of the deception. Participants must be informed of deception immediately at the end of the study. In order to minimize negative effects of deception, researchers must debrief participants and inform them of the true nature of the study (Pivitera, 2017). 3. Use Stevens’ model of measurement scales to answer these questions: a) What type of scale is used when the variable is social class? Explain. b) What type of scale is used when the variable studied is a Top 40 list of popular songs? Explain. c) What type of scale is used when the variable studied is intelligence scores (for example, on the Stanford-Binet-R)? Explain. d) What type of scale is used when the variables studied are low and normal birth weights of newborns? Explain. Answer: (a) Nominal: social class categories do not imply that one is better than the other (b) Ordinal: songs are ranked by popularity; the intervals between the songs are not necessarily equal (e.g., suppose Song #1 sold 6 million MP3s, #2 sold 5.9, and #3 sold 3 million) (c) Interval: scores on intelligence tests have equal intervals, but there is no fixed zero point, (d) Ratio: Birth weights have a fixed zero point, so ratio assessments can be made. 4. Compare and contrast the following terms: (a) test-retest reliability with inter-rater reliability, (b) content validity with both predictive validity and construct validity, and (c) internal validity with external validity. Answer: a) test-retest reliability is when a measure or observation is consistent at two points in time. Contrary interrater reliability is when the same or similar observation is made by 2 or more observers. b) Content validity is when items or contents of a measure adequately represent all of the features of the construct being measured. Predictive validity is the extent to which scores obtained by a measure predict outcomes it should predict (Pivitera, 2017). Construct validity of a measurement is the extent to which an operational definition for a variable or construct is measuring the variable or construct (Pivitera, 2017) C) Internal validity is when a research design includes enough control of the conditions and experiences of participants that it can demonstrate a single unambiguous explanation for a manipulation that is cause and effect. Contrary, external validity is observations made in a study generalized beyond the specific manipulations or constraints in the study.