1. What are the four main categories of psychopathology according to the DSM-5? How are they distinguished from each other? - The four main categories are neurodevelopmental disorders, schizophrenia spectrum and other psychotic disorders, bipolar and related disorders, and depressive disorders. They are distinguished by the presence or absence of psychotic symptoms, the polarity and severity of mood episodes, and the onset and course of the disorder. 2. What is the difference between a mental disorder and a medical condition? How can they interact with each other? - A mental disorder is a syndrome characterized by clinically significant disturbance in an individual's cognition, emotion regulation, or behavior that reflects a dysfunction in the psychological, biological, or developmental processes underlying mental functioning. A medical condition is a disease or injury that affects the body or its organs. They can interact with each other in various ways, such as causing, exacerbating, masking, or mimicking each other. 3. What are some common types of cognitive biases that can affect diagnostic reasoning? How can they be minimized or avoided? - Some common types of cognitive biases are confirmation bias, anchoring bias, availability bias, and hindsight bias. They can be minimized or avoided by seeking multiple sources of information, considering alternative hypotheses, being aware of one’s own assumptions and emotions, and reflecting on one’s own decision-making process. 4. What are some key components of a mental status examination? What are some examples of questions or tasks that can assess each component? - Some key components of a mental status examination are appearance and behavior, speech and language, mood and affect, thought process and content, perception, cognition, insight and judgment. Some examples of questions or tasks that can assess each component are: - Appearance and behavior: Observe the patient's grooming, hygiene, clothing, posture, eye contact, facial expressions, gestures, and motor activity. - Speech and language: Listen to the patient's rate, volume, tone, fluency, articulation, and coherence of speech. Ask the patient to name objects, repeat phrases, follow commands, read and write sentences. - Mood and affect: Ask the patient how they feel most of the time and how their mood changes over time. Observe the patient's emotional expression, range, intensity, appropriateness, and congruence with mood. - Thought process and content: Listen to the patient's logic, coherence, relevance, organization, and continuity of thought. Ask the patient about their beliefs, opinions, goals, plans, fantasies, delusions, obsessions, compulsions, suicidal or homicidal ideation. - Perception: Ask the patient if they experience any unusual sensations or perceptions that others do not share. Assess for hallucinations (auditory, visual, olfactory, gustatory,